Education1

According to "A Nation at Risk", the American education system has declined due to a " rising tide of mediocrity" in our schools. States such as New York have responded to the findings and recommendations of the report by implementing such strategies as the "Regents Action Plan" and the "New Compact for Learning". In the early 1980Æs, President Regan ordered a national commission to study our education system. The findings of this commission were that, compared with other industrialized nations, our education system is grossly inadequate in meeting the standards of education that many other countries have developed. At one time, America was the world leader in technology, service, and industry, but overconfidence based on a historical belief in our superiority has caused our nation to fall behind the rapidly growing competitive market in the world with regard to education. The report in some respects is an unfair comparison of our education system, which does not have a national standard for goals, curriculum, or regulations, with other countries that do, but the findings nevertheless reflect the need for change. Our education system at this time is regulated by states which implement their own curriculum, set their own goals and have their own requirements for teacher preparation. Combined with this is the fact that we have lowered our expectations in these areas, thus we are not providing an equal or quality education to all students across the country. The commission findings generated recommendations to improve the content of education and raise the standards of student achievement, particularly in testing, increase the time spent on education and provide incentives to encourage more individuals to enter the field of education as well as improving teacher preparation. N.Y. State responded to these recommendations by first implementing the Regents Action Plan; an eight year plan designed to raise the standards of education. This plan changed the requirements for graduation by raising the number of credits needed for graduation, raising the number of required core curriculum classes such as social studies, and introduced technology and computer science. The plan also introduced the Regents Minimum Competency Tests, which requires a student to pass tests in five major categories; math, science, reading, writing, and two areas of social studies. Although the plan achieved many of its goals in raising standards of education in N.Y. State, the general consensus is that we need to continue to improve our education system rather than being satisfied with the achievements we have made thus far. Therefore, N.Y. adopted "The New Compact for Learning". This plan is based on the principles that all children can learn. The focus of education should be on results and teachers should aim for mastery, not minimum competency. Education should be provided for all children and authority with accountability should be given to educators and success should be rewarded with necessary changes being made to reduce failures. This plan calls for curriculum to be devised in order to meet the needs of students so that they will be fully functional in society upon graduation, rather than just being able to graduate. Districts within the state have been given the authority to devise their own curriculum, but are held accountable by the state so that each district meets the states goals that have been established. Teachers are encouraged to challenge students to reach their full potential, rather than minimum competency. In this regard, tracking of students is being eliminated so that all students will be challenged, rather than just those who are gifted. Similarly, success should be rewarded with recognition and incentives to further encourage progress for districts, teachers and students while others who are not as accomplished are provided remedial training or resources in order to help them achieve success. It is difficult to determine whether our country on the whole has responded to the concerns that "A Nation at Risk" presented. Clearly though, N.Y. State has taken measures over the last ten years to improve its own education system. In many respects the state has accomplished much of what it set out to do, but the need to continue to improve is still present. Certainly, if America is determined to regain its superiority in the world, education, the foundation of our future, needs to be priority number one. Teachers often develop academic expectations of students based on characteristics that are unrelated to academic progress. These expectations can affect the way educators present themselves toward the student, causing an alteration in the way our students learn, and thus causing an overall degeneration in the potential growth of the student. Expectations affect students in many ways, not just academically, but in the form of mental and social deprivation which causes a lack of self-esteem. When educators receive information about students, mostly even before the student walks into their classroom, from past test scores, IEPÆs, and past teachers, it tends to alter the way we look at the students potential for growth. This foundation of expectation is then transformed on to our method of instruction. One basic fallout from these expectations is the amount of time educators spend in communicating with students. We tend to speak more directly to students who excel, talking in more matures tone of voice, treating them more like a grown-up than we do to the students who are already labeled underachievers. This can give the student an added incentive to either progress or regress due to the amount of stimulation that they receive. As educators we tend to take the exceptional students "under our wing". We tend to offer knowledge in situations to help push the good students, in comparison to moving on to the next task for the others. We also tend to critique the work of our god students more positively than the others, offering challenges to the answers they have given. The most obvious characteristic that educators present to the students is in the area of body language and facial expression. We tend to present ourselves in a more professional manner to our good students, speaking more clearly and with a stronger tone of voice. We tend to stand more upright, in a more powerful stance, than to the slouching effect we give to the underachievers. The head shakes, glancing with our eyes, hand gestures, and posture all contribute to the way we look at certain students based on our first impressions which came before we even knew the student. One major way we can avoid these pitfalls and eliminate unfair expectations that help produce failure in our students is to restrict the past information on the students to a need to know basis. Instead of telling the teacher how the student did on past examinations, just present them with the curricula that the student must learn during the time they spend in that class. This enables the educator to formulate their own opinions of that student. Also, instead of doing the IEP meetings during the middle of the year, we should wait till the end of the semester to inform the educators of certain aspects of the student instead of giving them all the information earlier in the year. Finally, it is up to the educator himself to evaluate their own teaching methods to be able to recognize, and change, the way they present themselves to the entire class. To be able to know what we are doing, and how we are doing it, at different times in the day is crucial to the aura we present to the students. Schools are often blamed for the ills of society, yet society has a major impact on our education system. The problems that schools are facing today are certainly connected to the problems that are society faces, including drugs, violence, and the changing of our family structure. There are many methods that schools have begun to use in order to deal with the problems they are faced with and still offer the best possible education to our youth. The use of drugs in the general population has become a very serious problem in society and within the school system. There are two aspects to drug use that teachers are having to deal with now. The first is in trying to teach the new generation of crack babies that are now entering the schools. These students have extremely low attention spans and can be very disruptive in class. Early intervention programs designed to target these children and focus on behavior management within the school setting have been effective in preparing these students for school. Educators have also identified drug use among students as one of the most significant problems that our schools face today. According to the text, the rate of drug use among students has declined in last few years, but recently there has been an increase in alcohol abuse among teenagers. Intervention programs such as APPLE, (a school based rehabilitation facility) have been implemented in many schools with the cooperation of school counselors and community agencies to treat drug using teenagers. Other programs, such as D.A.R.E have been implemented in many elementary schools to provide education about drugs to young students. Violence, both in society and in the school system has also been identified as a serious problem. The influx of weapons in schools creates a dangerous situation for teachers, administrators and other students. One remedy for this problem has been introduced in many public city schools; the use of metal detectors. While this method is not foolproof it does send the message that violence will not be tolerated in schools and that severe measures will be implemented in order to curb it. Educators are also being trained to identify those students who may be violent and to provide non-violent crisis intervention. It is an undeniable fact that our society has a serious problem concerning violence and that the violence on the streets is certainly connected to the violence in the schools. It seems questionable that even these measures will significantly reduce the problem in schools, but certainly the process of teaching can continue in a less stressful atmosphere by having these measures in place. Unfortunately, there are other problems such as the changing family structure that do not have such clear cut solutions. Some of the problems that teachers are faced with concerning the family include poverty, single parent homes, abuse and/or neglect and homelessness. Statistics state that 41% of single, female headed households live below the poverty level and that students who live in single parent homes score lower on achievement tests, particularly boys whose mothers are the head of the household. Obviously, single parent families are a fact in our society today, given the rising rate of divorce and single women having children, and it is true that this change is having a severe effect on students today, but this should not effect the quality of education that is provided, but rather, encourage educators to be more aware of the difficulties these students face in order to adapt their teaching style, as well as the curriculum to reach these students. Similarly, child abuse and/or neglect has become a major issue in society and schools. It is not clear whether there is a rise in the occurrences of abuse or whether better awareness has increased the statistics, but it cannot be argued that this a significant problem and one that effects those educators who have to help students who are either abused or neglected. Strict regulations concerning the accountability of teachers regarding the reporting of child abuse or neglect are in effect. Teachers are required to be trained on the ability to identify abuse. Community agencies, shelters and child welfare agencies have begun working in conjunction with schools in order to deal with the problem with as little disruption in the studentÆs education as possible. Homelessness is another major problem in our society. The rate of homeless people has grown significantly since the early 1980Æs deinstitutionalization movement and more recently due to the rising unemployment rate have led to more families and children being homeless than ever before. This social problem has become a significant problem for educators. Low achievement, which may be in part due to low attendance as a result of a transient lifestyle, physical problems associated with living on the streets and child abuse are all issues that educators are confronted with when working with students who are homeless. Unfortunately, because of the lack of government funds, this problem continues to grow in America. On the other hand, schools have begun to deal with this problem by hiring additional counselors, some who work specifically to coordinate service with shelters in order provide assistance to these families and more precisely to the children. This effort clearly demonstrates that educators are genuinely concerned about providing education to all children. Clearly our schools and society face the same problems. It has become necessary for all people, not just educators, to be more aware of the problems. Although some intervention programs have been implemented and in some cases are very successful, it is becoming more apparent that these problems are going to continue and will have a direct consequence on our future in this country. Unfortunately, we as a society tend to look for the "quick fix" to our problems without realizing the consequences for the future. Our society need to understand that the schools are not responsible for the cause of these problems or the solutions, but rather, all aspects of society, including schools, are intertwined and need to collectively work together if we are ever to make progress toward resolving these problems in the long run.

Education

In today's society a college education is an essential part of pursuing a career. While in college a person can determine his strengths and weaknesses in whatever path he decides to take in life. A college education is also the first step in being self-sufficient and living by yourself. College life also gives a person a chance to express his ingenious and creative abilities and to supplement the skills that he learned in high school. City University will give me an unprecedented opportunity to achieve these goals and to reach a new plateau in my scholarly studies. In my life I plan to pursue a career in the aerospace field. To get a job in this field one needs a college education and City University fits the bill. Its curriculum and accomplished professors will give me the chance to achieve my goal. Each of the independent colleges of the university system is highly specialized and particular to its own field of training. This will help applicants like me concentrate on my specific career path. I have visited the university campus twice and each time I have been impressed by the devotion of the faculty to ensure that the student's educational needs are met and surpassed. I perceive that the university is concerned about the educational well-being of its students. This is exemplified by the abundant tutoring opportunities that the university offers. Not only is the staff exceptional, City University has phenomenal technology. City University is on the cutting edge of technology which is indispensable in the aerospace field. The EOS computing environment is a substructure for building a bridge to the future. This system will give me many opportunities to use its resources to intensify my skills while pursuing my occupation. Having access to millions of computers all over the world, with the information I need at my fingertips will propel me to a higher level of intellectual aptness. The immense number of computer clusters available at the university enables a student to arm himself with the knowledge needed to aid him in any project or endeavor that he may attempt. In conclusion, City University would be the ideal institution to pursue my dreams and ambitions to become an aerospace engineer. It goes above and beyond the call of duty to ensure that its students become useful members of society. As I commence my journey into independent life City University will be my guide making sure that I follow the right track into the future.

Cultural Literacy

According to E.D. Hirsch, to be culturally literate is to possess the basic information to thrive in the modern world. It is the ³grasp on the background information that writers and speakers assume their audience already has.² In his book, Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know, Hirsch sets forth 5,000 essential words and phrases of which each person should be knowledgeable. The list ranges from idioms to mythology, from science to fairy tales. Why has this list prompted a notable debate on our country¹s educational standards? E.D. Hirsch believes that the literacy of American people has been rapidly declining. The long range remedy for restoring and improving American literacy must be to ³institute a policy of imparting common information in our schools.² In short, according to Hirsch - the answer to our problem lies within the list. Hirsch¹s book explains the importance of the need of a higher level of national literacy. His main argument is that cultural literacy is required for effective communication and the ³cooperation of many people...² Communication is what Hirsch sees is essential for success in today¹s society. Communication is the key to equality in America. With increased cultural literacy, an egalitarian society is eventually possible. One common body of knowledge for everyone will be the glue that holds society together. Hirsch also points out the senselessness of concepts such as multi-culturalism and multi-lingualism. He acknowledges the importance of the numerous cultures and ethnicities of which United States is comprised. Hirsch mentions the ³hyphenated American: the Italo-American, the Polish-American, the Afro-American, the Asian-American and so forth.² He points out that he is in favor of each minority¹s protection, nurture, and respect; however, he strongly feels that people need to decide what ³ŒAmerican¹ means on the other side of the hyphen...what national values and traditions really belong to national cultural literacy.² American cultural literacy should be based on our traditions -- morality of tolerance and benevolence, the Golden Rule, communal cooperation, altruism and freedom. It is in this way that Hirsch argues those in opposition of cultural literacy. Many opponents question Hirsch¹s view by questioning who would decide this common body of knowledge for everyone. People debate what is included in ³the list² on the basis of multiculturism. They ask, is the knowledge equally important to every citizen of the United States no matter what race, gender or religion? Hirsch responds by putting the emphasis on the other side of the hyphen - the American side. When reading Hirsch¹s book, I strongly agreed with his big picture of cultural literacy and agree that it is important to establish a common body of knowledge for students consisting of important facts. However, I think Hirsch takes it a step too far by comprising a sample list that intentionally excludes Americans that are of different origin. Hirsch needs to keep in mind that the United States was founded on the ideal that anyone and everyone should be free and equal -- no matter where they come from or who they are. In essence - multi-culturalism is a part of America¹s foundation and I think that students should be educated on that ground no matter what Hirsch¹s ³list² says. I believe that Hirsch¹s views regarding multi-culturalism and multi-lingualism are completely one sided and too extreme to be applied in today¹s typical American classroom. Although it is simple to imagine the glorious outcome of a nation that is fully literate and educated in several areas, one must look at the details. In spite of Dewey¹s revolutionary philosophy on education, Hirsch stands completely opposite. Dewey¹s philosophy stresses the crucial role of experience in a student¹s education and development. His system would prepare the student for life in the ³real world² -- for everyday interactions with peer and co-workers. Hirsch criticizes methods advocated by Dewey and Rousseau by saying that a child needs to ³learn the traditions of the particular human society and culture it is born into....American children need traditional information at a very early age.² But what role does traditional information play in today¹s society? Hirsch longs for the historic educational system of memorization. He plans for the student to use this information when engaging in somewhat intellectual discussions and reading materials by preparing him for the author¹s brief allusions and references. For the majority of Americans who are working blue-collar jobs -- traditional information plays virtually no role at all. The memorization of dates and names was simply a waste of time in the classroom; their education is not being applied to their lifestyles. This sort of education may be important for some people in the United States, but not everyone can memorize dates and names, the truth is - not everyone needs to. Therefore, I think the best kind of education will combine the theories of Dewey and Hirsch. This could be done by involving hands-on experiences in addition to a lesson or lecture. Too much of either type of education simply won¹t be advantageous to students once they are out of school. I found Cultural Literacy particularly interesting because of the fact that I am attending Colgate University, a liberal arts school. It is the mission of a liberal arts school to educate each student in several different areas and for each student to become knowledgeable of a core curriculum. In a sense, this is what Hirsch wants for every school in the United States. From my experience, Hirsch¹s perspective does have validity, but he has a tendency to underestimate the importance of a student¹s interest in the learning processCoprights: Jens Shriver

AIDS FACTS

"The fatal weakening of the immune system which has given AIDS its name (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome)," write the Segals, "has been traced back to a destruction or a functional failure of the T4-lymphocytes, also called 'helper cells`, which play a regulatory role in the production of antibodies in the immune system." In the course of the illness, the number of functional T4- cells is reduced greatly so that new anti-bodies cannot be produced and the defenceless patient remains exposed to a range of infections that under other circumstances would have been harmless. Most AIDS patients die from opportunistic infections rather than from the AIDS virus itself. The initial infection is characterized by diarrhea, erysipelas and intermittent fever. An apparent recovery follows after 2-3 weeks, and in many cases the patient remains without symptoms and functions normally for years. Occasionally a swelling of the lymph glands, which does not affect the patient's well-being, can be observed. After several years, the pre-AIDS stage, known as ARC (Aids- Related Complex) sets in. This stage includes disorders in the digestive tract, kidneys and lungs. In most cases it develops into full-blown AIDS in about a year, at which point opportunistic illnesses occur. Parallel to this syndrome, disorders in various organ systems occur, the most severe in the brain, the symptoms of which range from motoric disorders to severe dementia and death. This set of symptoms, say the Segals, is identical in every detail with the Visna sickness which occurs in sheep, mainly in Iceland. (Visna means tiredness in Icelandic). However, the visna virus is not pathogenic for human beings. The Segals note that despite the fact that AIDS is transmitted only through sexual intercourse, blood transfusions and non- sterile hypodermic needles, the infection has spread dramatically. During the first few years after its discovery, the number of AIDS patients doubled every six months, and is still doubling every 12 months now though numerous measures have been taken against it. Based on these figures, it is estimated that in the US, which had 120,000 cases of AIDS at the end of 1988, 900,000 people will have AIDS or will have died of it by the end of 1991. It is also estimated that the number of people infected is at least ten times the number of those suffering from an acute case of AIDS. That in the year 1995 there will be between 10-14 million cases of AIDS and an additional 100 million people infected, 80 percent of them in the US, while a possible vaccination will not be available before 1995 by the most optimistic estimates. Even when such vaccination becomes available, it will not help those already infected. These and following figures have been reached at by several different mainstream sources, such as the US Surgeon General and the Chief of the medical services of the US Army. "AIDS does not merely bring certain dangers with it; it is clearly a programmed catastrophe for the human race, whose magnitude is comparable only with that of a nuclear war", say the Segals. " They later explain what they mean by "programmed," showing that the virus was produced by humans, namely Dr. Robert Gallo of the Bethesda Cancer Research Center in Maryland. When proceeding to prove their claims, the Segals are careful to note that: "We have given preference to the investigative results of highly renowned laboratories, whose objective contents cannot be doubted. We must emphasize, in this connection, that we do not know of any findings that have been published in professional journals that contradict our hypotheses." DISCOVERING AIDS The first KNOWN cases of AIDS occurred in New York in 1979. The first DESCRIBED cases were in California in 1979. The virus was isolated in Paris in May 1983, taken from a French homosexual who had returned home ill from a trip to the East Coast of the US. One year later, Robert Gallo and his co-workers at the Bethesda Cancer Research Center published their discovery of the same virus, which is cytotoxic. ( i.e poisonous to cells ) Shortly after publishing his discovery, Gallo stated to newspapers that the virus had developed by a natural process from the Human Adult Leukemia virus, HTLV-1, which he had previously discovered. However, this claim was not published in professional publications, and soon after, Alizon and Montagnier, two researchers of the Pasteur Institute in Paris published charts of HTLV-1 and HIV, showing that the viruses had basically different structures. They also declared categorically that they knew of no natural process by which one of these two forms could have evolved into the other. According to the professional "science" magazine, the fall 1984 annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), was almost entirely devoted to the question of: to what extent new pathogenic agents could be produced via human manipulation of genes. According to the Segals, AIDS was practically the sole topic of discussion. THE AIDS VIRUS The Segals discuss the findings of Gonda et al, who compared the HIV, visna and other closely-related viruses and found that the visna virus is the most similar to HIV. The two were, in fact, 60% identical in 1986. According to findings of the Hahn group, the mutation rate of the HIV virus was about a million times higher than that of similar viruses, and that on the average a 10% alteration took place every two years. That would mean that in 1984, the difference between HIV and visna would have been only 30%, in 1982- 20%, 10% in 1980 and zero in 1978. "This means," say the Segals, "that at this time visna viruses changed into HIV, receiving at the same time the ability to become parasites in human T4-cells and the high genetic instability that is not known in other retroviruses. This is also consistent with the fact that the first cases of AIDS appeared about one year later, in the spring of 1979." "In his comparison of the genomes of visna and HIV," add the Segals, "Coffin hit upon a remarkable feature. The env (envelope) area of the HIV genome, which encodes the envelope proteins which help the virus to attach itself to the host cell, is about 300 nucleotides longer than the same area in visna. This behaviour suggests that an additional piece has been inserted into the genomes of the visna virus, a piece that alters the envelope proteins and enables them to bind themselves to the T4-receptors. BUT THIS SECTION BEHAVES LIKE A BIOLOGICALLY ALIEN BODY, which does not match the rest of the system biochemically. The above mentioned work by Gonda et al shows that the HIV virus has a section of about 300 nucleotides, which does not exist in the visna virus. That length corresponds with what Coffin described. That section is particularly unstable, which indicates that it is an alien object. According to the Segals, it "originates in an HTLV-1 genome, (discovered by Gallo-ED) for the likelihood of an accidental occurrence in HIV of a genome sequence 60% identical with a section of the HTLV-1 that is 300 nucleotides in length is zero." Since the visna virus is incapable of attaching itself to human T4 receptors, it must have been the transfer of the HTLV-1 genome section which gave visna the capability to do so. In other words, the addition of HTLV-1 to visna made the HIV virus. In addition, the high mutation rate of the HIV genome has been explained by another scientific team, Chandra et al, by the fact that it is "a combination of two genome parts which are alien to each other BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS rather than by a natural process of evolution, because this process would have immediately eliminated, through natural selection, systems that are so replete with disorders." "These are the facts of the case," say the Segals. "HIV is essentially a visna virus which carries an additional protein monomer of HTLV-1 that has an epitope capable of bonding with T4 receptors. Neither Alizon and Montagnier nor any other biologist know of any natural mechanism that would make it possible for the epitope to be transferred from HTLV-1 to the visna virus. For this reason we can come to only one conclusion: that this gene combination arose by artificial means, through gene manipulation." THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIV "The construction of a recombinant virus by means of gene manipulation is extraordinarily expensive, and it requires a large number of highly qualified personnel, complicated equipment and expensive high security laboratories. Moreover, the product would have no commercial value. Who, then," ask the Segals, "would have provided the resources for a type of research that was aimed solely at the production of a new disease that would be deadly to human beings?" The English sociologist Allistair Hay (as well as Paxman et al in "A Higher Form of Killing"-ED), published a document whose authenticity has been confirmed by the US Congress, showing that a representative of the Pentagon requested in 1969 additional funding for biological warfare research. The intention was to create, within the next ten years, a new virus that would not be susceptible to the immune system, so that the afflicted patient would not be able to develop any defense against it. Ten years later, in the spring of 1979, the first cases of AIDS appeared in New York. "Thus began a phase of frantic experimentation," say the Segals. One group was working on trying to cause animal pathogens to adapt themselves to life in human beings. This was done under the cover of searching for a cure for cancer. The race was won by Gallo, who described his findings in 1975. A year later, Gallo described gene manipulations he was conducting. In 1980 he published his discovery of HTLV. In the fall of 1977, a P4 (highest security category of laboratory, in which human pathogens are subjected to genetic manipulations) laboratory was officially opened in building 550 of Fort Detrick, MD, the Pentagon's main biological warfare research center. "In an article in 'Der Spiegel`, Prof. Mollings point out that this type of gene manipulation was still extremely difficult in 1977. One would have had to have a genius as great as Robert Gallo for this purpose, note the Segals." Lo and behold. In a supposed compliance with the international accord banning the research, production and storage of biological weapons, part of Fort Detrick was "demilitarized" and the virus section renamed the "Frederick Cancer Research Facility". It was put under the direction of the Cancer Research Institute in neighbouring Bethesda, whose director was no other than Robert Gallo. This happened in 1975, the year Gallo discovered HTLV. Explaining how the virus escaped, the Segals note that in the US, biological agents are traditionally tested on prisoners who are incarcerated for long periods, and who are promised freedom if they survive the test. However, the initial HIV infection symptoms are mild and followed by a seemingly healthy patient. "Those who conducted the research must have concluded that the new virus was...not so virulent that it could be considered for military use, and the test patients, who had seemingly recovered, were given their freedom. Most of the patients were professional criminals and New York City, which is relatively close, offered them a suitable milieu. Moreover, the patients were exclusively men, many of them having a history of homosexuality and drug abuse, as is often the case in American prisons. It is understandable why AIDS broke out precisely in 1979, precisely among men and among drug users, and precisely in New York City," assert the Segals. They go on to explain that whereas in cases of infection by means of sexual contact, incubation periods are two years and more, while in cases of massive infection via blood transfusions, as must have been the case with prisoners, incubation periods are shorter than a year. "Thus, if the new virus was ready at the beginning of 1978 and if the experiments began without too much delay, then the first cases of full-blown AIDS in 1979 were exactly the resultthat could have been expected." In the next three lengthy chapters, the Segals examine other theories, "legends" as they call them, of the origins of AIDS. Dissecting each claim, they show that they have no scientific standing, providing also the findings of other scientists. They also bring up the arguments of scientists and popular writers who have been at the task of discounting them as "conspiracy theorists" and show these writers' shortcomings. Interested readers will have to read the original article to follow those debates. I will only quote two more paragraphs: "We often heard the argument that experiments with human volunteers are part of a barbaric past, and that they would be impossible in the US today... We wish to present one single document whose authenticity is beyond doubt. An investigative commission of the US House of Representatives presented in October 1986 a final report concerning the Manhattan Project. According to this document, between 1945 and 1975 at least 695 American citizens were exposed to dangerous doses of radioactivity. Some of them were prisoners who had volunteered, but they also included residents of old-age homes, inmates of insane asylums, handicapped people in nursing homes, and even normal patients in public hospitals; most of them were subjected to these experiments without their permission. Thus the 'barbaric past` is not really a thing of the past." "It is remarkable that most of these experiments were carried out in university institutes and federal hospitals, all of which are named in the report. Nonetheless, these facts remained secret until 1984, and even then a Congressional committee that was equipped with all the necessary authorization needed two years in order to bring these facts to life. We are often asked how the work on the AIDS virus could have been kept secret. Now, experiments performed on a few dozen prisoners in a laboratory that is subject to military security can be far more easily kept secret than could be the Manhattan Project."

Uranium

Uranium was discovered in the 1700's in the coal mines of bohemia and Jachlovikna. Uranium's atomic number is 92, its Symbol is U and the atomic mass of uranium is 238.0289. Miners called it Pechblende meaning, Pechblende, from the German words pech, which means either pitch or bad luck, and blende, meaning mineral Uranium's first full analysis was done on 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a self-taught well educated german chemist. Klaproth, having extracted from pitchblende what he called 'a strange kind of half metal' (he had only isolated its oxide), he resisted the temptation to give his own name to the new element, which was quite customary at the time. William Herschel gave uranium its name from the last planet founded in are solar system at the time, he named it Uran, which in its final form became uranium, a name which today is known worldwide while klaproth's own fame has faded. Uranium is as dense as gold. Uranium, was first prepared with some difficulty, in 1841 by the french chemist Eugène Peligot, using thermal reaction of tetrachloride with potassium. Later in 1870, an important fact was established: uranium is the last and heaviest element present on earth. This was demonstrated by Dimitri Mendeleev in his famous perodical classification of the elements by chemical properties and increasing atomic mass. Experimentation with uranium lead to many discoversies such as the X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen, on November 8, 1895. Wilhelm Röntgen, was awarded the first Nobel prize in 1901 for the development of the X-ray. Uranium is weakly radioactive, decaying slowly but inexorably at the rate of one milligram per tonne per year. It is transformed into inactive lead through a chain of radioelements or daughters, each of which has a characteristic disintegration rate, a constant of nature that man has never been able to alter. The proportion of each radioelement in the ore is inversely proportional to its rate of disintegration. Radium is the fifth radioactive descendant in the chain from uranium to lead, its daughter is the gas radon, and polonium is the last radioelement before lead. The discovery of Uranium changed the world as we knew it, from its physical and chemical properties we came about the X-ray, following down the line, chemists and scientists used Uranium to make weapons of mass destruction, (i.e the Atom bomb).